Aristotle
(384–322 B.C.E.) wrote several works laying the foundations for
comparative anatomy, taxonomy, and embryology. He investigated carefully all
kinds of animals, including humans. His works on life sciences, On Sense and Sensible Objects, On
Memory and Recollection, On Sleep and Waking, On Dreams, On Divination by
Dreams, On Length and Shortness of Life, On Youth and Age, and On
Respiration, are collectively called Parva Naturalia.
When did the study of anatomy and physiology first become accepted as sciences?
Anatomy
and physiology were first accepted as sciences during ancient Greek times.
Hippocrates (c. 460–377 B.C.E.), who is considered the father of medicine, established
medicine as a science, separating it from religion and philosophy. His
application of logic and reason to medicine was the beginning of observational
medicine.
What are some specialties of physiology?
Specialties
and subdivisions of physiology include cell physiology, special physiology,
systemic physiology, and pathological physiology, often called simply
pathology. Cell physiology is the study of the functions of cells, including
both chemical processes within cells and chemical interactions between
cells.Special physiology is the physiological study of specific organs, such as
cardiac physiology, which is the study of heart function. Systemic physiology
is comparable to systemic anatomy since it is the study of the functions of
different body systems, such as renal physiology and neurophysiology. Pathology
(from the Greek pathos, meaning “suffering” or “disease”) is the study of the
effects of diseases on organs or systems and diseased cells and tissues.
How is the field of anatomy divided into subdivisions?
The
field of anatomy is generally divided into macroscopic, or gross anatomy (not
requiring a microscope), and microscopic anatomy.
Gross anatomy includes
the subdivisions of regional anatomy,
systemic anatomy, developmental anatomy, and clinical anatomy.
Regional
anatomy studies specific regions of the body, such as the head and neck or
lower and upper limbs. Systemic anatomy studies different body systems, such as
the digestive system and reproductive system.
Developmental anatomy describes
the changes that occur from conception through physical maturity.
Clinical
anatomy includes medical anatomy (anatomical features that change during
illness) and radiographic anatomy (anatomical structures seen using various
imaging techniques).
The
two major subdivisions of microscopic anatomy are cytology and histology.
Cytology (from the Greek cyto,
meaning “cell”) is the study and
analysis of the internal structure of
individual cells. Histology (from the Greek histos,
meaning “web”) is the study and
examination of tissues.
Which scientific disciplines study the human body?
The scientific disciplines of anatomy and physiology study the human body. Anatomy (from the Greek ana and temnein, meaning “to cut up”) is the study of the structure of the body parts, including their form and organization. Physiology (from the Latin, meaning “the study of nature”) is the study of the function of the various body parts and organs. Anatomy and physiology are usually studied together to achieve a complete understanding of the human body.
What is Osteoarthritis?
Osteoarthritis (OA) can be defined as the degeneration of the hyaline cartilage covering articular surfaces. Secondary effects of the disease include the inflammation of the synovial membrane and subchondral bone (the bone in contact with the cartilage) and the formation of bony growths around the edges of the joint surface.
Osteoarthritis causes pain and functional impairment. It is closely linked to age, mostly affecting people in their 50s and 60s, and has a predisposition for the knee, certain joints in the hand (the distal and proximal interphalangeal joints), the hip and the small joints in the spine. However, the disease can occur in any joint and can affect one or more joints (polyarthritis).
Inside the Human Skull
The human skull is a bony structure, part of the skeleton, that is in the human head and which supports the structures of the face and forms a cavity for the brain.
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